Islam
Islam – religion “Par Excellance” - is the second largest religion of India with population. Islam is rigorously monotheistic. Allah is viewed as the unique God – Creator, sustainer and restorer of the world. Allah is just and merciful; and, majestic and sovereign. The will of Allah is made known through the Qur'an, the book revealed by God to his messenger – the Muhammad. So, there is no God, but Allah, and Muhammad is His Prophet, and also the last prophet. In the words of Gellner, “Islam is the blueprint of social order”. In reality, Islam is the blueprint of politico-socio-economic order. So, Secularism is anathema particularly to diehard Muslims.
In Islam, there is no church or priest or idol worship; neither orthodoxy or hierarchy; nor kingship or aristocracy; and no castes or estates. No privileges are permitted. Power in Islam derives from Allah and the faith, and not from the Sovereign people. Since power belongs to Allah, it cannot be shared with others. Hence, Islamic ideology is based on the need to defend/ protect its faith. In sum, Islam is a total, living and dynamic politico-socio-economic ideology. Trinitarianism, the Christian belief that God is three persons in one substance, or, polytheism of Hinduism is vigorously repudiated by Islam.
Let me at the outset highlight the hypocrisy of Islam particularly in the Indian context. Broadly, the Indian Muslims are divided as Ashrafs and Ajlafs. But, there is also the arzal caste among Muslims, who are the equivalent of untouchables. The Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc. They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging etc.
Some of the upper and middle caste Muslim communities include Syed, Shaikh, Shaikhzada, Khanzada, Pathan, Mughal, and Malik.
The Arabic term “Islam: literally means surrender. The believer called Muslim accepts “surrender to the Will of Allah”. From the beginning, Prophet Muhammad had inculcated a sense of brotherhood and bond of faith amongst his followers. The five pillars of Islam are: predestination and blind faith; Salat (5 prayers); Zakat (Tax); Sawn (fasting during the month of Ramadan); and the Haj (Pilgrimage).
Islam demonstrates five times a day reflects ability literally to move people – the most important channel of mass participation and impressive mobilization capabilities - monolithic and awe inspiring. Its concept of universalistic humanity and God transcending tribe, race color, and caste and class barriers is very attractive, particularly to the suppressed. But what needs to be recognized is that it grew from a minuscule followership of 313 in 624 AD to the present status of over 25% of world population.
During the formative stages, Islam, acquired its characteristic ethos as a religion uniting in itself both the spiritual and temporal aspects of life and seeking to regulate not only the individual relationship to God, but human relationships in human setting (collective consciousness). Thus, there is not only an Islamic religious institution, but also an Islamic Law, State and other institutions governing society.
The term ‘Jihad’ is commonly perceived as armed struggle or justified violence unless qualified by the suffixes. As per Akbar S Ahmad of Pakistan: the Muslim ideal based on Qur’an and Sunna is al-adl (equilibrium) and al-ahsan (compassion); the Islamic Virtues are courage, generosity, cleanliness and piety; and the Islamic principles are Qiyas (analogical reasoning), ijtihad (independent judgment), Shura (consultation) and ijma (consensus).
By original conception of the Prophet, Islam has many positive facets - endearing, liberal and enduring. It is a derivative of the Arabic verb ‘Jahada’ which means ‘striving in the path of God’ - the higher forms of Jihad (peaceful means for peaceful purposes). For example, Jihad al-lisan means striving of the tongue, Jihad al-Qalam means striving of the pen and Jihad al-tarbiya means striving through education; Jihad al-shatan means struggle against Satan; all representing higher forms of Jihad or peaceful and non-aggressive manifestations. Out of them is coined the term ‘Mujahid’ to mean ‘one who strives in the path of God’. Its true interpretation, therefore, extends between ‘focus of personal striving against oneself’ to ‘against unbelievers and hypocrites’.
On the other hand, al-Jihad al-saghir, the lesser form of Jihad, represents or legitimizes all forms of strife with other human beings through war, violence and so on. So, some scholars opine that the Qur'an sanctifies terror before, during and after battle in the name of ‘striving in the path of God’. As per Mujid Khadduri, an eminent scholar, “Jihad was the just war of Islam. God commanded the believer to spread his Word and establish his Law and Justice over the world. Religion, however, was and still is to be carried out by peaceful means, as there should be no compulsion in the spread of the word of God (Qur’an 2: 257)”. What about the interpretation of others or radicals?
Islamic scholars like Sayyid Qutab of Egypt held that “ultimately humankind as created by God is a single community where divinely intended unity had been seriously fractured by the time Islam came to the 7th century AD in Arabia. Islam arose to restore human unity and bring peace to the World”. So, the justification for violence and terror to spread Islam and the awe inspiring nature of ‘Jihad’ as understood commonly by a majority.
The reality of Islam is perplexing. There are various forms of Islam ranging from Sunnism, Shi’ism, Kharjism, Mu'tazilah, Sufism, Ismailis, Ahemidias and Black Muslims to name some of the important sects. Their internal cleavages are perplexing as is the case with other religions to include: confrontations between the rulers/leaders and the Mullahs; and violent clashes between Sunni, Shia, Sufi and Ahemidia. In Pakistan one often hears of violence between Sunnis and Shias.
Next, there are differing and interesting interpretations of Islamic nationalism. For example, political orders of all Arab nations differ and there are confrontations amongst themselves – Gulf War and Iran-Iraq conflicts being relevant examples. Even within Pakistan there are wide divergences: Bhutto’s Islamic socialism vs. Zia’s Islamic fundamentalism. Finally, the diversity of Sindhi, Punjabi Baluchi, Paktoon, Kashmiri, Bengali, Assamese, Gujarati Marathi, Oriya, Andhra, Kannadiga, Tamil and Malayalee Muslims in the sub-continent is real.
Thus, Islam’s diversity is such that it is well nigh impossible to retain the pristine form of either Saudi Arabian or Pakistani brand of Islam. Islam is many faceted and used in a variety of ways for the achievement of widely different politico-socio-economic objectives at local, national, regional and international levels, both to preserve status-quo or to promote anti status-quo character of movements. Oil as a weapon and the Islamic Bomb needs to be viewed in such a context.
However, Islam accorded special status to the people of the Book, which is, Jews and Christians followed by Zoroastrians and Hindus. But they were required to pay per capita tax called ‘Jizyah’, which forced many to convert.
Since there is hardly any escape from oppression, suppression, depression and frustrations amongst peoples of various societies and Nations, Islam with its concept of universalistic humanity has exciting prospects. In the above overall Islamic context, the correct perspective of the growth and rise of Islam not only in India, but also in the rest of the world needs to be understood.
Fiction – Islam established its position in India in the 11th century AD with Muslim Sultans rampaging the country with the Sword in one hand and the Qur’an in the other hand – in the name of Allah.
Fact – Islam was brought to India through Sind by Arab traders in the 7th century AD and spread by wandering Muslim ascetics and Pirs in a slow, but steady manner. Muhammad Bin Qasim first captured Sind in 711 AD and attempted Islamisation by offering complete equality for the rulers and generous treatment. Next, Muhammad Ghazni led more than twenty raids into India during 1001-27 AD, but annexed territory during 1026-27 AD only, when Multan and Lahore were incorporated into the Ghaznavid Sultanate. Subsequently, its rapid spread consolidation was done by Muhammad Ghori by 1196 AD. A decade later, the Slave Dynasty (Mamluks) was established with its capital at Delhi in 1206. The five dynasties (1290-1320), Tuglaks (1320-1413), Sayyids (1414-51 AD) and the Lodis (1451-1526 AD) spread Islam by the dual policy of conversion by persuasion and sword under various Sultanates.
However, it was under the Mughals, Islam’s spread became rapid. First, Akbar attempted to create a refined Islam, the Deen-e-llahi, and a syncretic religion combining the best of all religions. Admittedly, Akbar’s attempt could not be consolidated by his successors. During Aurangzeb’s reign, bitter Hindu-Islamic battles were fought. Assertive Hindu revivalist movements spread rapidly and became nationalist ethnic armed uprisings. Once Aurangzeb’s reign ended, Muslim Princes battled amongst themselves and murdered each other. Delhi was ransacked more than once in the 18th century: by Nadir Shah of Iran in 1739, and later, by Ahmed Shah Abadali of Afghanistan in 1761. Thus, internal atrophy of Muslim Empires, abetted by the raids of external Muslim powers, brought about the downfall of Muslim Empires.
Islam suffered a further serious reverse in 1857, when the Muslims became the flag bearers of the Mutiny (14 May – 21 Sep 1857) and rallied under the banner of Bahadur Shah II. On suppressing the Mutiny, the British banished Bahadur Shah II to Rangoon, terminated the role of Muslims in the political and administrative fields, rejected their language and threatened their identity. So the spread of Islam was reduced to a trickle. Partition on communal lines 90 years later in 1947 and the communal holocaust in the aftermath are the other crucial landmarks that stunted the growth of Islam.
In sum, the rapid growth of Islam in India up to mid AD 18th century was more by violence and survival compulsion of rulers and ruled alike. But, the concept of Islamic egalitarianism also attracted many non-caste Hindus. Of course, the increase in the Muslim population was also caused by a continuing influx of refugees in the wake of the Mongol invasion of Islamic lands. Add to it, settlers who migrated looking from the wealth of India during the Islamic Empires. Islam got entrenched amongst the people of border regions, that is, Baluchi, Paktoon, Sind his, Punjabis and Kashmiris. Finally, the message of love and kindness which the Sufis (mystics) propagated played a major role in attracting the oppressed masses.
The partition deprived and denied status and power to the Muslims who stayed back. But, it is they who were the most vociferous and violent in their demand for Pakistan. When their misguided venture failed to restore fame and power, naturally their psyche was damaged. After lying low for some years after 1947, they have reverted to their historic game of assertive and divisive tendencies. Add to it, the Bangladeshi Muslim insidious infiltration. It has naturally resulted in the much trumpeted Hindu revivalism. More vital, some amongst them apprehended the ‘Andalusia Syndrome’ to wipe them out.
The most vital issue to be realized by others is ‘how can a community, although based on an alien religion, but accepted and practiced by different ethnic groups, having enjoyed predominant status and power since the 12th century, face the reality of being a minority and adjust itself to the emerging realities’, particularly when the psyche of its followers is fed and bred on the super alter ego of ‘Jihad’.
Such is the psychological trauma which every Single Muslim in India is going through by birth. Most Significant it is, therefore, to differentiate the post partition Muslim manifestations from their pre-independence movements.
No wonder, Indian Muslims are getting attracted towards fundamentalism and communalism as an offensive-defensive reaction. It is also naïve to expect young educated, exploited and culturally distinct Muslims in minority not to fasten upon and cling to the religious factor tenaciously in order to be better able to mobilize political capabilities against central authorities. After all, the corporate responsibility of the Ummah lends hope for its members. After all, secularism is unacceptable to a good Muslim.
Moreover, in strategic areas such as Kashmir, where the Muslims are a majority, abetted by external forces and dramatic international developments in the region, resurgence or reassertion of Islamic separatism may be viewed as a natural process. A word of caution. If Pan-Indian social order or supra-nationalism does not satisfy the growing awareness and raising expectations of Muslims in India, then it is likely that they may support and actively participate in supra-regional or ethnic separatist uprisings, since they provide alternate options to enjoy a better clout and share in power. Whatever needs to be evaluated of the present and future should be viewed from such an angle. Such are harsh emerging realities.
A quick look for the opportunities. Islam in India is as diverse and complex as its counterparts elsewhere. Some of the important sects in India are Sunni’s (spread all over India – 80%), Shia’s (mostly in Awad, Rampur, Muzaffarnagar in UP and Hyderabad – 20%). Dawoodi Bohra’s (mostly in Bombay), Ismaili Khojjas (Aga Khan – mostly in Bombay), Memons (ex Brahmans and Lohanas of Sindh and Kutch in Bombay), and Moplaha (Malayalee speaking Muslims who follow local customs and manners including matrilineal system besides being ignorant of Urdu) and Sufis. Muslims too differ in their beliefs, customs, traditions and culture based on their ethnic and cultural differences. The differences vary from obscurantist, fundamentalist, reactionary to the high order Sufism. Consequently, intra religious tensions and conflicts even among the Muslims in India cannot also be wished away.
Be what it may, Sufism offers hope. The Shrine of Khwaja Muin al Din Chist at Ajmer represents the glory of Sufism. Some devotees at the Shrine are Hindus and highlight its secular appeal. The Bhakti movement was also the result of Sufi influences and its syncretic effect on the Hindu society. It also protests against the caste system and the priest. The followers of Bhakti movements were from Weavers, Cobblers and so on. Bhakti Saints like Kabir advocated a direct relationship between Sufism and liberal Hinduism which has been well established. It should be viewed as an opportunity, seized and exploited to build a modern syncretic religion for India just as Akbar attempted in the past and strived for its success.
Of course, Sufism, too, is subdivided into various orders: the Khishtiya (all over India) and the Shattariyas (Gujarat and Bengal) advocating unity of Being (akin to Hindu philosophy); the Suhrawardy (Punjab and Sind); and the Nazshandis (all over India), opposing pantheistic ideas, but advocating adherence to the religious law; and Firdaus (Bihar) adopting a middle course – reconciling Unity of Being with the Unity of Vision.
Yet another significant issue that needs attention is the growth of Mosques, Dargahs and Madrassas post 1947 Partition. Today, there are more than 300,000 active mosques in India, which is higher than any other country. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a Dargah. A large number of tombs!
What is worrisome is the quantum jump in the number of Madrassas from 88 in 1947 to five lakhs in 2006 across India is a mind boggling narrative of unremitting Islamic spread. It has the potential to bring about tectonic changes in the future geopolitical developments across India – including the much dreaded clash of civilizations!
Financial aid, particularly from Saudi Arabia, Iran, ISI and others extended to Islamic organizations - charities, educational institutions and political organizations - to build Mosques, Madrassa’s, and publishing houses to 'Islamize' India. The broader Saudi effort is furthered by the fact that some three million Indians work in the kingdom. Many of them hail from Kerala in southwestern India. The Muslim community in Kerala is undergoing the process of Arabification.
Some observers feel that the key reason for Saudi Arabia’s engagement with Indian Muslims is about countering Iran’s influence in India. Saudi Arabia sees Indian Shiites, who are believed to account for anywhere between 10% and 30% of the country’s 180 million Muslims, as an Iranian fifth wheel.
Finally, the demographic changes post Partition in 1947 is another root cause resulting in polarization of Hindus. After partition in 1947, the Hindu and Muslim populations were 85% and 8.89% respectively. The Government of India at Lok Sabha has estimated the Muslim population at 19.75 to 20 crore for 2023 year, out of 138.8 to 140.0 crore total population, thus constituting around (14.22%–14.28%) of the nation's population respectively. As per Asaduddin Owaisi of the AIMIM, the current percentage is over 20%. And, others estimate the proportions are 77% and 21% respectively.
Viewed in the above overall framework, many reasonable conclusions can be easily drawn. Classical Islam is a politico-religious ideology and theocratic not syncretic. So, any talk of secularism for a good Muslim will be an anathema. But, it does provide a higher order religion for oppressed suppressed masses to gain equal status with others in society, which is a fallacy. Also, Islam is not a monolith religion despite its trans-national orientation, but pluralistic. Blind faith and super alter ego (one Muslim is equal to 10 Kafirs) will pre-dominate their psyche. Religion and politics are inseparable.
Most importantly, Muslims are unlikely to overcome the psychological trauma on account of the events of 1857 and 1947. The increasing occurrence of communal conflicts is compounding their state, strengthening radicals/militants amongst them and hardening their postures. Sufism, one of its philosophies, provides scope for further growth of Islam, since it is syncretic in nature.
Mullahs have always displayed tremendous mobilization capabilities. Both the Mullahs and militants alike understand the power potential of Islamic weapons to achieve both short-mid-long term politico-socio-economic objectives and how to wield them. Pseudo-secularism permits their use very effectively and they fully exploit them. As a result, it is quite difficult for rational Muslim political leadership to emerge in our environment. Should Islam succeed in fostering new geo-political alignments to emerge in Central and West Asia, surely it will lend hope to Indian Muslims to promote Islamic revival.
The growth of Muslims in real numbers has been significant in India, particularly after the partition, but without resorting to the sword. Admittedly, it is more due to population explosion, migrations and infiltrations, Vis a Vis, conversions. If the trends continue, the Hindu’s will alarmingly view it as a threat.
So, the Muslim strategy would be to continue confrontation, cooperation and collision with central authorities at levels which would give them best pay-offs in short-mid-long term contexts. More vital, it is to analyze rationally their alignments with others also. Not-with-standing such postures, Muslims in India must realize that they are primarily Indian Muslims and wherever they go in the world, they cannot change their national identity to either Pakistani or Saudi Arabian Muslims status. Furthermore, they must realize that conditions in pre-independent India, a British colony, which had permitted creation of Pakistan, are vastly different from post-independent India. So, escalation of communal conflicts will only compound Hindu backlash or militantism which is harmful to their interests. In the existing contest, “Live and Let Live in peace” offers the best solution to protect its people’s interests and futuristic Islamic objectives. Surely, posterity may provide better opportunities, particularly when the winds of ethnic separation blow threatening to break-up the country.
( Part 3 – Christianity to continue)
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