Part – II –India’s Civil Nuclear Energy Saga/Story
In November 2021, India committed to achieve the Net Zero emissions target by 2070 at the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
The per capita consumption of the USA (population of 338 million and electricity generating capacity of 1161 GW) is 11,730 kWh; and China (population of 1430 million and 2920 GW) is 5800 kWh. China has 55 nuclear plants with 57 GW, 22 under construction with 24 GW and 70 planned with 88 GW – total 169 GW.
Due to 7-8% GDP growth rate, rapid urbanization and improved living standards, the requirement of annual increase of electricity generation also may be around 8-10%. Today, India’s per capita consumption (population 1440 million and electricity generating capacity 495.200 GW as of March 31, 2023) is 1327 kWh up from 734 kWh in 2014. The increase is by 10% from last year. If so, by 2030, per capita consumption may be around 2350 kWh (generating capacity 875 GW). And by 2040, it may be over 6089 kWh (generating capacity 2493 GW) and over 11,866 kWh (generating capacity 4855 GW) by 2047.
Power generation capacity is 429.97 GW as of 2023 which is a 70% increase from 2014: fossil fuels (Coal, Lignite, Gas and Diesel) 237.269 GW or 56.8%; non-fossil sources (RES incl. Hydro) 173.619 GW or 41.4%; and Nuclear 6.780 GW or 1.6%. Based on expert studies, the projected power generation installed capacity required to meet the electricity demand in the year 2029-30 in base case is 774.7 GW (303.6 GW of Coal and gas, 21.1 GW of Nuclear, and 480 GW of Renewable Energy (RE) including 57.7 GW of Large Hydro, 270.1 GW of PV, 118.4 GW of Wind, 19.3 GW of other RE). Additionally, Pumped storage plants (PSP) based installed capacity of 14.5 GW (with daily storage of 6-7 hours), BESS storage-based capacity of around 25 GW with 5-hour may be required in 2029-30.
As per plans, India will commission a nuclear power reactor every year thereby triple nuclear power generation capacity to 22.48 GW by 2031. If India wants to become a “Vikshit Bharat by 2047”, there is no alternative but to fully exploit opportunities available not only in RE segment but more so in the nuclear energy field. Perhaps, there is a need to set the nuclear energy target at 5% (1.6% today) of the energy pie by 2030, that is, around 38 GW (instead of 22.48 GW). The percentage may be determined for 2040 and 2047. Adequate financial allocations made to achieve the above targets.
Strategy - Three-Stage Nuclear Program
The current strategy is based on a three-stage nuclear power program to include: Stage 1 –PHWRs by using Uranium which produces fissile plutonium. Also, Light Water Reactor (LWR) based on imported technology; Stage 2 – Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR), Gen 3 Advanced Reactor, reprocessing the spent nuclear fuel and the recovered plutonium; and Stage 3 – Thorium-Uranium based reactors using the non-fissile depleted uranium and thorium to breed additional fissile nuclear fuel (plutonium and uranium-233) to meet the long-term energy requirements.
The PHWRs of the first stage are fully developed and implemented. India is the leader in PHWRs – 220 MWe, 540 MWe and 700 MWe. The Uranium put into PHWRs produces a huge inventory of PLUTONIUM that can be used in FBRs. The FBR program launched in 1985 which was successful by 2008, resulted in the development of 500 MWe FBR at Kalpakkam - liquid sodium cooled, pool type reactor using mixed oxide of uranium and plutonium as fuel. The coolant used is Sodium. It produces more fuel than it consumes. In the vital second stage, the “Core Loading” took place at indigenous FBR (500 MWe) recently. The Stage-3 aims to use Thorium as fuel on a commercial scale. It is the only sustainable option for meeting a major part of the energy demand. Thorium is widely viewed as the 'fuel of the future'. Also, SMRs to meet energy requirements.
India's first LWR is Kudankulam nuclear reactor, which became the country's largest power generating unit in 2014. LWRs are a type of thermal-neutron reactor that use water as a moderator and coolant, and are fueled by low enriched uranium. Water is also used to produce heat through controlled nuclear fission.
India has over 500,000 tons of thorium reserves in readily extractable form that is 25% of the world's thorium reserves. State wise reserves include: Odisha - 2.41 million tonnes; Andhra Pradesh - 3.72 million tonnes; Tamil Nadu - 2.46 million tonnes; Kerala - 1.90 million tonnes; West Bengal - 1.22 million tonnes; and Jharkhand- 0.22 million tonnes. The beach sands of Kerala and Orissa have rich reserves of monazite, which contains about 8 – 10% thorium. Most important, it is to safeguard from Sand Mafia’s.
India’s Nuclear Energy Growth Story
India’s Apsara” - August 1956 - first research reactor in Asia, became operational in Trombay campus of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre”. Currently 22 operating reactors (18xPHWRs, 2xPWRs and 2xBWRS), with an installed capacity of 6780 MWe include: 1969 - Tarapur Atomic Power Station (1400 MWe); 1973 Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (1180 MWe); 1984 - (Kalpakkam) Madras Atomic Power Station (440 MWe); 1991 - Narora Atomic Power Station (440 MWe); 1993 - Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (440 MWe); 2000 - Kaiga Nuclear Power Plant (880 MWe); and, 2013 - Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (2000 MWe). Total Capacity – 6,780 MWe.
· Currently Under Construction – Eight Reactors (7300 MWe): comprising of Kakrapar Atomic Power Project (KAPP) Unit-3&4 (2 x 700 MWe, PHWRs); Rajasthan Atomic Power Project (RAPP) Unit 7&8 (2 x 700 MW, PHWRs); Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KKNPP) Unit 3&4 (2 x 1000 MWe, LWRs) and KKNPP Unit-5&6 (2 x 1000 MWe, LWRs); Kalpakkam Madras Atomic Power Station (500 MWe, Fast Breeder Reactor- FBR) executed by BHAVINI.
· Planned – PHWRs – Chutka in Madhya Pradesh (2x700 MWe PHWR); Kaiga in Karnataka (2x700 MWe PHWR); Bhimpur Madhya Pradesh (4x700 MWe PHWR); Mahi Banswara in Rajasthan (4x700 MWe PHWR); Gorakhpur in Haryana (4x700 MWe PHWR); Kudankalam in Tamil Nadu (2x1000 MWe PWR); Jaitapur in Maharashtra – European Gen 3 pressurized water reactors by AREVA(6x1650 MWe PWR); Kovaada in Andhra Pradesh – USA Gen 3+ GE Westinghouse (6x1000 MWe LWR); Mithi Virdi (Viradi) in Gujarat - USA Gen 3+ GE Westinghouse (6x1000 MWe LWR); and Haripur in West Bengal (4x1,000 MWe LWR). Total PHWR – 10,800 MWe; PWR – 11,900 MWe; and LWR – 16,000 MWe= 38,700 MWe.
· Advanced heavy-water reactor (AHWR) or AHWR-300: KAMINI is the world's first thorium-based experimental reactor – Stage 3 Reactor. It is vertical, pressure tube type, cooled and moderated by boiling light water, and heavy water moderated reactor light water, fueled with (Th-Pu) MOX and (Th-233U) MOX types of fuel produced by the thorium fuel cycle harnessed by the neighboring reactor and produce 30 KW of thermal energy at full power. The adoption of closed fuel cycle in AHWR helps in generating a large fraction of energy from thorium.
The Prototype FBR (500 MWe FBR) at Kalpakkam is a advanced Gen 3 reactor with inherent passive safety features ensuring a prompt and safe shut down of the plant in the event of an emergency. Initially, the Uranium-Plutonium Mixed Oxide (MOX) is used as fuel. The Uranium-238 “blanket” surrounding the fuel core will undergo nuclear transmutation to produce more fuel, thus earning the name ‘Breeder’. The use of Throium-232, which in itself is not a fissile material, as a blanket is also envisaged in this stage. By transmutation, Thorium will create fissile Uranium-233 which will be used as fuel in the third stage. FBR is thus a stepping stone for the third stage of the program paving the way for the eventual full utilization of India’s abundant thorium reserves.
Furthermore, there are three research reactors to include: Apsara-U at rated power of 2 MW successfully demonstrated; and Dhruva operated with an Availability Factor (AF) of 73.2% during the calendar year 2022. Additionally, it is reviewing provisions of the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 to enable private sector and start-up participation. L&T has said it can produce SMRs; steel manufacturers were interested in having several hundred reactors to produce hydrogen, to replace coke, in steel making. Also, in the context of transitioning to a Net Zero economy by 2070, there is a growing focus on the potential role of Hydrogen.
The future of nuclear power generation is from SMRs. They represent means to fulfill India’s commitment to clean energy transition. The centre is already considering partnerships with other nations and pursuing indigenous development of SMRs. The suggestion is for a 5 MWe reactor, 3-metre-tall and 2-meter diameter, capable of being transported in a shipping container. The suggestion for the fuel was for 19.75 per cent enriched uranium (2.7 tonnes of Uranium Oxide containing 540 tonnes of U-235), which would require refueling after 15 years.
Finally, to achieve net-Zero emission targets by 2070, there is no alternative but to exploit the full potential of civil nuclear energy. Of course, it will be a Himalayan Challenge to achieve. But, there is also limit to generate electric power from non-fossil sources (RES incl. Hydro). So, nuclear power generating capacity target must at least constitute 7-10% of total capacity by 2047, that is, at least 300 GW.
In sum, there is no alternative but to rapidly expand the growth of nuclear energy generation to fulfill climate commitments. Indian nuclear scientists are capable of delivering. Until 2008, “Sanctions” stalled their early realization. Thereafter, civil society activist’s obdurate protests and inadequate financial allocations are the real stumbling block. Since India is the leader in PHWR technology and pursuing LWR reactor implementation and the 2-Stage PFBR (500 MWe FBR) “core loading” has been completed recently and 3-Stage AHWR-300 KAMINI, the first Thorium based reactor, is in experimental stage, India can step up nuclear power generation rapidly. Most important, nuclear industries commercial credentials are well recognized internationally. And, they need to commission 16xGen 3 or 3+ LWRs under planning and sanction before 2030 for speedy execution of Stage 3 “Thorium-Uranium” fuel cycle. Viewed holistically, Policy makers need to revise and set targets for nuclear electricity power generation to be achieved by 2030, 2040 and 2047. Accordingly, allocate adequate funding for each financial year.
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